Translation is transference
of a content, form and style from source text into an equivalent one in
the target language. You consider textual elements, context and culture.
What is
Translation?
There
are numerous definitions and perspectives of translation, but we will deal with
the definition from two main perspectives (formal and functional)
Translation
approaches
The
method translators use to approach a source text in order to render it:
1.
Text-oriented
·
Text types
Informative
(tells you something)
Expressive
(expresses feelings of the writer)
Operative
(tells audience to do something)
·
Translation technique of each type
2.
Audience oriented
·
Domestication (make the text
exactly as the original: natural, e.g. Egyptianization)
·
Foregnization (keep the foreign
elements in text)
3.
Function-oriented
Purpose
(fulfilled/unfulfilled)
Translation loss
1.
Avoidable
2.
Unavoidable
Translation Techniques and Strategies
1.
Paraphrase
2.
Addition
3.
Omission
(subtraction)
4.
Grammatical
Transposition (changing word order)
5.
Cultural
substitution
6.
Translator’s
note (footnote-Endnote parenthetical)
7.
Conflation
(merging two or three words in one word)
8.
Transliteration
Examples
Translation Classification
Documentary
versus Communicative
Documentary (exactly as is with same words,
structures and content)
1.
Legal Translation
2.
Medical Translation
3.
Technical Translation
4.
Religious Translation
5.
Bible
6.
Quraan
Communicative (communicate message, tone, ambience,
aesthetic effect)
1.
Literary Translation
2.
Print
media
3.
Subtitling
Interpreting
Interpreting
falls into 7 forms:
1.
Simultaneous (real
time-booth-microphone-earphone)
2.
Consecutive (short: memory-long:
notes)
3.
Whispered (no equipment)
4.
Relay (multilingual)
5.
Conference (private- institutional)
6.
Judicial (court- any other legal
station- SI-CI)
7.
Escort (accompanying
person/delegation:tour-interview…)
In interpreting,
an interpreter is a person who converts a thought or expression in a
source language into an expression with a comparable meaning in a target
language either simultaneously in "real time" or consecutively after
one party has finished speaking. The interpreter's function is to convey every
semantic element (tone and register) and every intention and feeling of the
message that the source-language speaker is directing to target-language
recipients.
1. Simultaneous
In (extempore) simultaneous interpretation (SI), the
interpreter renders the message in the target-language as quickly as he or she
can formulate it from the source language, while the source-language speaker
continuously speaks; an oral-language SI interpreter, sitting in a sound-proof
booth, speaks into a microphone, while clearly seeing and hearing the
source-language speaker via earphones. The simultaneous interpretation is
rendered to the target-language listeners via their earphones. Moreover, SI is
the common mode used by sign language interpreters, although the person using
the source language, the interpreter and the target language recipient (since
either the hearing person or the deaf person may be delivering the message)
must necessarily be in close proximity.
2. Consecutive
In consecutive interpreting (CI), the interpreter
speaks after the source-language speaker has finished speaking. The speech is
divided into segments, and the interpreter sits or stands beside the
source-language speaker, listening and taking
notes as the speaker progresses through the message. When the
speaker pauses or finishes speaking, the interpreter then renders a portion of
the message or the entire message in the target language.
Consecutive interpretation is rendered as "short
CI" or "long CI". In short CI, the interpreter relies on memory,
each message segment being brief enough to memorize. In long CI, the
interpreter takes
notes of the message to aid rendering long passages. These informal
divisions are established with the client before the interpretation is
effected, depending upon the subject, its complexity, and the purpose of the
interpretation.
3. Whispered
In whispered interpreting (chuchotage, in
French) sometimes called whispering simultaneous, the interpreter sits
or stands next to the person. The interpreter speaks softly using normal
(voiced) speech kept at a low volume. The interpreter's mouth and the ear of
the person listening must be in close proximity so as not to disturb the others
in the room. Without electronic equipment, chucotage is tiring as the
interpreter's posture is affected.
4. Relay
Relay interpreting is usually used when there are
several target languages. A source-language interpreter interprets the text to
a language common to every interpreter, who then render the message to their
respective target languages. For example, a Japanese source message first is
rendered to English to a group of interpreters, who listen to the English and
render the message into Arabic, French, and Russian, the other target
languages. In heavily multilingual meetings, there may be more than one
"intermediate" language.
5. Conference
Conference interpreting is the interpretation of a
conference, either simultaneously or consecutively. Conference interpretation
is divided between two markets: the institutional and private. International
institutions (EU, UN, EPO, et cetera), holding multi-lingual meetings, often
favor interpreting several foreign languages to the interpreters' mother
tongues. Local private markets tend to bi-lingual meetings (the local language
plus another) and the interpreters work both into and out of their mother
tongues; the markets are not mutually exclusive. The International
Association of Conference Interpreters (AIIC) is the only worldwide association of conference interpreters. Founded
in 1953, it assembles more than 2,800 professional conference interpreters in
more than 90 countries.
6. Judicial
Judicial, legal, or court interpreting occurs in
courts of justice, administrative tribunals, and wherever a legal proceeding is
held (i. e., a police station for an interrogation, a conference room for
a deposition, or the locale for taking a sworn statement). Legal interpreting
can be the consecutive interpretation of witnesses' testimony, for example, or
the simultaneous interpretation of entire proceedings, by electronic means, for
one person, or all of the people attending.
7. Escort
In escort interpreting, an interpreter
accompanies a person or a delegation on a tour, on a visit, or to a meeting or
interview. An interpreter in this role is called an escort interpreter
or an escorting interpreter. This is liaison interpreting.
Legal
Translation
·
When translating a text within the
field of law, the translator should keep the following in mind. The legal
system of the source text (ST) is structured in a way that suits that culture
and this is reflected in the legal language; similarly, the target text (TT) is
to be read by someone who is familiar with the other legal system
(corresponding to the jurisdiction for which TT is prepared) and its language.
Most forms of legal writing, and contracts in particular, seek to establish
clearly defined rights and duties individuals. It is essential to ensure
precise correspondence of these rights and duties in the source text and in the
translation. Legal translation may also involve, Certificates of Accuracy, Witness
Statements, Depositions, Trusts, Wills,
Articles of Incorporation, Litigation
Documents, Immigration Documents, Property/Exhibit Labels
and in some cases attendance in court by the translator(s). Apart from
terminological lacunae, or lexical gaps, the translator may
focus on the following aspects. Textual conventions in the source language are
often culture-dependent and may not correspond to conventions in the target
culture (see e.g. Nielsen 2010). Linguistic structures that are often found in
the source language may have no direct equivalent structures in the target
language. The translator therefore has to be guided by certain standards of
linguistic, social and cultural equivalence between the language used in the
source text (ST) to produce a text (TT) in the target language. Translators of
legal texts often consult law dictionaries, especially bilingual law dictionaries.
Care should be taken, as some bilingual law dictionaries are of poor quality
and their use may lead to mistranslation.
Medical
Translation
Medical
translation is the translation of technical, regulatory, clinical or marketing
documentation, software or training curriculum for the pharmaceutical, medical
device or healthcare fields. Most countries around the world require
that literature and labeling associated with medical devices or pharmaceuticals
sold have be translated into the national language(s). In addition, documents
necessary to conduct clinical trials often require translation in order for
local clinicians and patients and regulatory representatives have to be able to
read them. Regulatory approval submissions typically have to be translated as
well.
Aside
from linguistic skills, it requires specific training and subject matter
knowledge in order to translate medical content. This is because of the highly
technical, sensitive and regulated nature of medical texts.
1. Process
Because
medical translation is typically a multi-step process, it is usually carried
out by a translation agency that oversees all project management and the
linguistic team. Steps in the process can include:
•
Extraction of text from source format
•
Translation
– the conversion of the source language text to the target language text
•
Editing – reading and revision by a separate person to assure adherence to
approved terminology and the proper style and voice.
•
Publishing – the translation is put back into the original format (e.g., Word
document, Web page, e-learning program)
•
Proofreading – this ensures that the formatted translation displays correctly
with no corrupted text, has proper punctuation and line and page breaks are
correct.
•
In-country review – a native-speaking expert reviews the translation to ensure
that it meets all specifications and product or therapy specifics.
2. Quality and Standards
Given
the life and death nature of medical texts, there is a strong emphasis on
translation quality.
The
international medical industry is highly regulated and companies who need to
translate their documentation typically choose translation agencies that are
certified or compliant with one or more of the following standards:
•
ISO 9001
– quality system standard
•
EN 15038
– European standard for translation vendor quality
•
ISO 13485
– overarching standard for manufacture of medical devices
4. Technical translation
Technical translation is a type of specialized
translation involving the translation of documents produced by technical writers (owner's manuals, user guides, etc.), or more specifically, texts which relate to
technological subject areas or texts which deal with the practical application
of scientific and technological information. While the presence of specialized terminology is a feature of technical texts, specialized
terminology alone is not sufficient for classifying a text as
"technical" since numerous disciplines and subjects which are not
"technical" possess what can be regarded as specialized terminology.
Technical translation covers the translation of many kinds of specialized texts
and requires a high level of subject knowledge and mastery of the relevant
terminology and writing conventions.
The importance of consistent terminology in technical
translation, for example in patents, as well as the highly formulaic and repetitive
nature of technical writing makes computer-assisted translation using translation memories and
terminology databases especially appropriate. In his book Technical
Translation Jody Byrne argues that
technical translation is closely related to technical communication
and that it can benefit from research in this and other areas such as usability
and cognitive psychology.
In addition to making texts with technical jargon
accessible for a wider ranging audience, technical translation also involves
linguistic features of translating technological texts from one language to
another. Translation as a whole is a balance of art and science influenced by
both theory and practice. Having knowledge of both the linguistic features as
well as the aesthetic features of translation applies directly to the field of
technical translation.
4.1. Machine translation
Practitioners within the field of technical
translation often employ what is called machine translation (MT), or
machine-assisted translation. This method of translation uses various types of
computer software to generate translations from a source language to a target
language without the assistance of a human. There are different methods of
machine translation. A plethora of machine translators in the form of free
search engines are available online. However, within the field of technical
communication, there are two basic types of machine translators, which are able
to translate massive amounts of text at a time. There are transfer-based and data-driven
machine translators. Transfer-based machine translation systems, which are
quite costly to develop, are built by linguists who determine the grammar rules
for the source and target languages. The machine works within the rules and
guidelines developed by the linguist. Due to the nature of developing rules for
the system, this can be very time-consuming and requires an extensive knowledge
base about the structures of the languages on the part of the linguist;
nonetheless, the majority of commercial machine translators are transfer-based
machines. Yahoo! BabelFish is a common example of a platform that uses this
type of translation technology.
5. Literary translation
Literary translation is the translation of texts within the field of literature. Translation of literary works (novels, short stories, plays, poems, etc.) is considered a literary pursuit in its own
right. As literature is a culture-dependent subject field, the work of literary
translation and its products are not necessarily linguistically transparent.
For example, notable in Canadian literature specifically as translators
are figures such as Sheila Fischman, Robert Dickson and Linda Gaboriau, and the Governor General's
Awards
annually present prizes for the best English-to-French and French-to-English
literary translations.
5.1. History
The first important translation
in the West was that of the Septuagint, a collection of Jewish Scriptures translated into early Koine Greek in Alexandria between the 3rd and 1st
centuries BCE. The dispersed Jews had forgotten their ancestral language and needed Greek
versions (translations) of their Scriptures.
Throughout the Middle Ages, Latin was the lingua franca of the western learned world.
The 9th-century Alfred the Great, king of Wessex in England, was far ahead of his time in commissioning vernacular Anglo-Saxon translations of Bede's Ecclesiastical History and Boethius' Consolation of
Philosophy. Meanwhile the Christian Church frowned on even partial adaptations of St. Jerome's Vulgate of ca. 384 CE, the standard Latin Bible.
In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing
translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly
invented block printing, and with the full support of
the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother
personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various
nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had
taken the Chinese centuries to render.
The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek
world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical
and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin,
chiefly at Córdoba in Spain. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and
science helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.
5.2. Modern translation
As languages change, texts in an
earlier version of a language – either original texts or old translations – may
be difficult for more modern readers to understand. Texts may thus be
translated into more modern language, called a modern translation (sometimes modern
English translation or modernized translation).
This is particularly done either for
literature from classical languages (such as Latin or Greek), most prominently the Bible
(see Modern English Bible
translations), or for literature from an earlier stage of the same language, such as
the works of William Shakespeare (which is largely understandable
to a modern audience, but presents some difficulties), or The Canterbury Tales of Geoffrey Chaucer (which is not generally understandable to modern
readers). Modern translation is applicable to any language with a long literary
history; for example in Japanese, The Tale of Genji (11th century) is generally read in modern translation.
6. Religious texts
An important role in history has
been played by translation of religious texts. Buddhist monks who translated the Indian sutras into Chinese often skewed their translations to better reflect China's distinct culture, emphasizing notions such as filial piety.
6.1. Bible Translation
The Bible has been translated into many languages from the biblical languages of Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. As of November 2012 the full Bible has been translated into 518
languages, and 2,798 languages have at least some portion of the Bible.
One of the first recorded
instances of translation in the West was the rendering of the Old Testament into Greek in the 3rd century BCE. The
translation is known as the "Septuagint", a name that refers to the seventy translators (seventy-two, in some
versions) who were commissioned to translate the Bible at Alexandria, Egypt. Each translator worked in solitary confinement in his own cell, and
according to legend all seventy versions proved identical. The Septuagint
became the source text for later translations into many
languages, including Latin, Coptic, Armenian and Georgian.
Still considered one of the
greatest translators in history, for having rendered the Bible into Latin, is Jerome of Stridon, the patron saint of translation. For centuries the Roman Catholic Church used his translation
(known as the Vulgate), though even this translation
at first stirred controversy.
6.2. Qur’an Translation
Translations of
the Qur'an are interpretations of the noble book of Islam in languages
other than Arabic. Qur'an has been
translated into most African, Asian and European languages.
Translation of the Qur'an has
always been a problematic and difficult issue in Islamic theology. Since
Muslims revere the Qur'an as miraculous and inimitable (i'jaz al-Qur'an),
they argue that the Qur'anic text cannot be reproduced in another language or
form. Furthermore, an Arabic word, like a Hebrew or Aramaic word, may have a range of meanings depending on the context - a
feature present in all Semitic languages, when compared to the moderately analytic English, Latin, and Romance languages - making an accurate translation
even more difficult.
According to modern Islamic theology, the Qur'an is a revelation very specifically in Arabic, and so it should only be recited in the
Arabic language. Translations into other languages are necessarily the work of
humans and so, according to Muslims, no longer possess the uniquely sacred
character of the Arabic original. Since these translations necessarily subtly
change the meaning, they are often called "interpretations" or
"translation[s] of the meanings" (with "meanings" being
ambiguous between the meanings of the various passages and the multiple
possible meanings with which each word taken in isolation can be associated,
and with the latter connotation amounting to an acknowledgement that the so-called
translation is but one possible interpretation and is not claimed to be the
full equivalent of the original). For instance, Pickthall called his translation The Meaning of
the Glorious Koran rather than simply The Koran.
Examples
Paraphrase (addition-subtraction)
Addition
Macdonalization
تطبيق أسلوب شركة ماكدونالدز
The
Hereafter دار البقاء
Orphanage
دار الأيتام
Guesthouse
دار الضيافه
Rest
House دار الاستراحة
Subtraction
Radio
Broadcasting Station دار الإذاعة
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